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a)      Right to tax traders doing business within the chiefs’ jurisdiction.

b)      Right to freedom of action in relation to making their sons chiefs under their jurisdiction.

c)      Right to help those seih (slaves), who were by custom not open to redemption.

d)     Right of freedom of action in relation to other kinds of seih, who used to constitute the means whereby the chiefs could cultivate and acquire the ability to sustain their villages in peace and in war.

e)      Right to attach the property of their villagers when they wished or deemed fit, with or without fault on the part of the villagers.

As result of abolition of those rights, the Mara chiefs became the British tax collectors, agents and subjects who were at their disposal. The chiefs had no prestige and power in their own lands. On the other hand, it was better for the Mara people in one sense that the government abolished the right of capital punishment. In spite of this, some chiefs ruled their subjects with justice and dignity, while there were some cruel chiefs who abused their rights. More people enjoyed liberation when the government abolished the rights of capital punishment of the Mara chiefs.

1.1.Circle Administration

A change of administration usually brings about social, political and cultural changes in society. The British administrator introduced Circle administration and the Maraland was divided into different circles and a circle inspector was appointed to each circle to serve as a channel between the Superintendent, Sub-divisional Officer, the chiefs and the people in general. Under each circle an interpreter was appointed.

1.2.Impressed labour

For the proud Mara society, who had never been under any government oppression, impressed labour was the most detested imposition they had ever experienced. The Maras would happily complete any voluntary work on the basis of apiepasaihna hro but culturally resented any imposition or forced labour. Although it was termed as ‘impressed labour’ in the government record to avoid ensuing later criticisms, in reality it was ‘forced labour’ because it was forced by the colonial officers on the Maras to do this except for the village chiefs and their officials. Village chiefs were frequently asked to supply labours and if they failed to do so on time, heavy fines and punishment immediately followed. While the Mara society was suffering oppression and insult from forced labour, the missionaries praised the colonial officers. To quote,

“The British government deserved great praise for the energy with which they have been opening up better means of communication in the hills of late years. This, as all the government work, is done by the impressed labour. A message is sent to the chiefs saying, “We want so many men, for such a work, on such a date” and the men have to be supplied.”[1]

As stated earlier, the Maras detested this forced labour but the British administrators, to justify the issue of impressed labour used the propaganda that ‘the Maras are savage, head-hunters and always giving trouble to the British subjects and the British government was forced to annex their land’.

The unexpected imposition of the Colonial rule in Maraland shattered the traditional social structure and cultural practices of the Mara society and greatly embittered the chiefs and the common people alike. But the colonial divide and rule policy had considerable success in Maraland and paved the way for Christian Missions which followed on the heels of the British conquest to win Maraland “for God and Empire”.[2]

2.      The Advent of the Missionaries and Cultural Changes

The socio-cultural changes through the advent of Christianity among the Maras were in line with the activities of the Missionaries (Lakher Pioneer Mission, London) since cultural changes mainly took place by the preaching of the Gospel. Maraland has seen a lot of changes and development both positive and negative aspect throughout her history. The coming of Christianity to the Mara people introduced them to a wider world beyond their own. Christianity along with the gospel brought many changes in their life-style, beliefs, ethical, moral and religious thinking. At the same time, it also gave negative impact to the Maras such as dishonest, corruption, and individualism. Young Maras are leaving traditional customs and adopting new ways of life which are greatly influenced by western cultures today, they mixed the western culture and lifestyle with the Mara traditional culture.[3]

Before the advent of the Gospel of Christ, the Maras’ customary laws were strictly observed and maintained in the society. When they sacrificed animals to God or evil spirit the priest would utter some words and rice beer would be served. But when the gospel of Christ came to the Maras all misunderstandings and un-forgiveness was taken over by peace, and harmony in the family as well as

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[1] Grace R. Lewis, The Lushai Hills: The Story of the Lushai Pioneer Mission (London: The Baptist Missionary Society, 1907), 43-44. Hereafter cited as ‘R. Lewis, The Lushai Hills’.

[2] Reginald A. Lorrain, Five Years in the Unknown Jungles: For God and Empire (London: Lakher Pioneer Mission, 1912; reprint, Guwahati: Spectrum Publications, 1988), 18.

[3] Biak Cungnung, Encounter Between Gospel and Tribal Culture (Bangalore: United Theological College, 1999), p.76.